Figuratively, a “slave” is one who is under the influence of another. According to Washington, a nation bound to another nation whether through “hatred” or “fondness” is equivalent, in the figurative sense, to a slave. “Passionate attachments” to other countries cause dependency which inhibit the ability for the nation to grow individually.

In this paragraph, Washington uses anaphora (repeating the word “it” at the beginning of each line) to emphasis each of the consequences of the “spirit of party.” This spirit dismantles a free government in several ways: it distracts, enfeebles, agitates, and “kindles… animosity.”

Similarly to how he writes about a “spirit of party” above, Washington mentions a “spirit of revenge.” By using this terminology, he claims that the desire for revenge is another natural human inclination, one that he urges his readers to avoid.

One of the various definitions of the noun “spirit” is a drive that animates individuals or groups of people. By associating the term “party” with this spirit, Washington claims that people and society are naturally disposed to form factions.

In this final paragraph, composed of one long sentence, Washington weaves together his anticipations for retirement with his hopes to live under a free government. In an appeal to pathos, he asks his audience to consider their shared missions and values. He concedes that this ideal government, or “happy reward,” can only be achieved with every American’s concerted efforts to care and to labor.

In a final appeal to ethos, Washington reconnects to the ideal of oneness and unity. He considers himself as one of many, one of the aforementioned “united mass.” He purposefully lowers his status in order to make it clear that he gives this advice as a fellow American, not as a superior.

An alloy is a substance composed of two or more items, typically metals. In this context, Washington uses the word “alloy” to describe when two things of different qualities are mixed to create something impure. By stating that he looks forward to retirement, he does so “without alloy,” or without a taint from an undesirable quality.

A “progenitor” is a forebearer. By using this term as well as the metaphor of soil, Washington speaks to a universal and timeless desire for a free, democratic nation. He claims that this “natural” desire stems within the “native soil” of the American people, stretching as far back as several generations.

In the final few paragraphs of his address, Washington returns with an appeal to ethos by insisting on his so-called incompetence. He draws a parallel between how his “incompetent abilities” will be forgotten and how he too will be forgotten in death. By describing death as being laid to rest in a mansion—or “in my Father’s house” according to the biblical Book of John, 14:2—Washington envisions that death will be finite. This idea of stagnancy—of resting in a mausoleum—contrasts against the vision he has for an ever-progressing nation. On December 14, 1799, only about three years after this farewell address, Washington died in Mount Vernon.

The verb “to beseech” means to beg or implore someone for something. Here, Washington reiterates one of his main ideas on morality and religion and the importance of the two for progress. He begs the “Almighty,” or God, to protect and guide the nation.

During the French Revolutionary Wars, which lasted between 1792 and 1802, France engaged in wars all across Europe and eventually, across the world. By 1796, France had waged war against several monarchies, including Austria, Prussia, Sardinia, Great Britain, and the Dutch Republic. According to Washington, all the sides involved were “Belligerent Powers” and the United States would not, under the Neutrality Proclamation of 1793, interfere in any of these foreign conflicts.

Washington chose to remain neutral during the French Revolutionary War because he feared foreign entanglement, believing that the United States was not militarily or economically prepared to engage in a war abroad. His decision to remain neutral during the French Revolutionary War set a groundbreaking precedent of neutrality for years to come.

Following the beheading of King Louis XVI in January of 1793, the French Revolution took a drastic turn. The French declared war on Great Britain and French ambassador Edmond-Charles Genêt came to the United States to recruit Americans to fight for France. Washington, worried that the United States might become embroiled in the revolution, issued the Neutrality Proclamation on April 22, 1793 which required Americans to adopt “a conduct friendly and impartial” to foreign powers. This proclamation was a major point of contention among Americans because, while some stood with Washington, others believed in France’s revolutionary efforts and wanted to stand by the nation that had allied with them in the American Revolutionary War.

For the first time in the address, Washington calls his readers his “countrymen.” This is one of the most personal portions of the address because he seems to be speaking directly to his readers as if he were their “old and affectionate friend.” This strategy connects Washington to them through a more personal bond, and in turn, it makes them more willing to listen and take heed of his advice.

Washington explains the precarious position of the United States in the global political scene. In commercial matters, he says the United States may get involved with other nations—although only with the utmost caution. With the metaphor of the “impartial hand,” Washington states that the US may get involved in foreign commercial matters; but, like a steady, unwavering hand, it must never ask for favors or force any affairs.

Despite Washington’s staunch isolationist policies, he provides an example of when interference in foreign affairs is acceptable: in the case of extraordinary emergencies. Such emergencies are never described in detail.

The adage “Honesty is the best policy” is most generally attributed to Sir Edwin Sandys, an English politician who, with the Virginia Company of London, founded the first English settlement at Jamestown, Virginia, in 1606. In the context of this address, Washington argues for his own isolationist policies, stating, “It is our true policy to steer clear of permanent alliances with any portion of the foreign world.” Washington thought it wise to have honest pre-existing alliances, but never to extend those alliances further.

This series of rhetorical questioning clarifies why Washington is so hesitant to interfere with foreign powers. Essentially, through these questions he asks why the US would want to interfere abroad and implicate themselves in crisis. This list of questions highlights the absurdity, in Washington’s eyes, of jeopardizing the nation and entanging themselves in European “toils.”

With this pithy remark, Washington asserts that the nation’s involvement abroad must extend only so far. This remark stands out against the otherwise meandering language Washington uses, and it causes readers to pause at the end of the paragraph. With this phrase, Washington argues that the United States may continue to engage with already-established allies and no others. It is not in the nation’s best interest to form new bonds.

Washington uses asides, or breaks in the narration designed to make it feel as though he is speaking more directly to readers, throughout his Farewell Address. In this case, he appeals to his own reputation as a trustworthy public figure as well as his status as a “fellow citizen” in order to build trust for his arguments. Asides also break the flow of the narration, allowing readers time to pause and engage with the text.

This combination of words speaks to Washington’s belief that foreign influence will harm the United States. The word “insidious” means treacherous or seductive, and the word “wiles” describes a cunning trick. By stating that countries abroad pose “insidious wiles,” Washington warns that foreign nations might undermine or play a deceitful trick on the United States.

Washington’s list of rhetorical questions appeal to the pathos of his readers. He implores them to continue to fight for a free nation, despite the vices, difficulties, or challenges they might encounter. With the interjection “Alas!” that punctuates the last rhetorical question of this paragraph, Washington expresses grief or concern for the nation should they allow their vices to prevent them from progressing.

Here, Washington lays out the importance of taxes to create revenue and pay back debts. He advises his readers: although they may at times seems “inconvenient” and “unpleasant,” taxes are a necessary component for a functioning government.

Throughout this passage, Washington scatters his writing with imperatives, or commands. With his list of imperatives, he requests that his readers “promote” knowledge, “cherish public credit,” “observe good faith,” and “cultivate peace.” Using the imperative tense gives his writing a sense of insistence and urges his readers to take note of his advice.

The adverb “scrupulously” means to do something carefully or thoroughly. Washington prioritizes being respected as something that the United States should take care to pursue. He indicates that it is respect from other nations that will give the United States the ability to become a long lasting power and that it will also serve as protection from “belligerent powers.”

Here, Washington employs two rhetorical devices to convey the importance of morality in government. First, he uses a rhetorical question to ask who would be so immoral as to remain impartial to attempts to tear the nation apart. Second, he compares the nation to a piece of fabric, which conveys a sense of oneness and unity. These combination of literary techniques serves as an appeal to his readers’ sympathies.

The verb “implicate” means to show that someone or something is involved in or responsible for something, typically a crime or other harmful action. Washington cautions against allowing the United States to be implicated in the actions of foreign powers through alliances, lest the US make enemies where it does not need to.

While the division between church and state is clearly delineated today, Washington thought that religion and morality were invaluable in politics. Unlike the Federalists, who believed that the only governmental bodies that could legislate on religious matters were the states, Washington saw the value in associating the federal government with religion. In his “Farewell Address,” he speaks at length about the importance of religion and morality to maintain and uphold “political prosperity” like “supports.”

The noun “vicissitude” is defined as a change in circumstances, typically with a negative connotation. It also refers to alternation between unlike or opposite things. By framing the politics of Europe as vicissitudinal, Washington reinforces the idea that it is unwise to form permanent alliances with other countries because of their constantly shifting politics and unpredictable nature.

The noun “depositories” describes a place where things are safely kept. Washington uses this word to describe how checks and balances among the three branches of governments are similar to placing and safeguarding things inside depositories. Without this regulation, Washington fears democracy might transform into autocracy.

Washington employs a fire metaphor to illustrate the importance of checks and balances on the federal government. Like a fire which requires constant supervision and vigilance, so too does a government need constant regulation in the form of checks and balances between the branches of government.

In Washington’s cautionary message about getting embroiled in foreign conflicts, he alludes to the long history of conflicts in Europe, including the ongoing French Revolutionary War (1789–1799). Many Democratic Republicans wanted the United States to lend their support to France because France was fighting to overthrow their monarchy—as the United States had thrown off the British monarchy—and because France had been instrumental in the American Revolution. Here, Washington cautions against getting involved and distances American concerns from European concerns. He indicates, too, how fickle European “friendships” and “enmities” are in the long run.

In this passage, Washington admits that forming divisions in “its greatest rankness”—meaning in an orderly, hierarchical fashion—is an innate human desire. He argues that Americans ought to recognize and dismantle this instinct to form parties, especially at the federal level.

Here, Washington personifies “Liberty” as someone searching for its guardian. The guardian, he claims, is analogous to the government he prescribes, “with powers properly distributed and adjusted.” Only in this idealized, isolationist government Washington describes can “Liberty” find its place.

The word “specious” describes something that is seemingly sound but is actually misleading or fallacious. Here, Washington warns against the specious, superficial politician who promises one thing but actually provides another.

The original meaning of the noun “satellite,” prior to the advent of space travel, was “follower” or “underling.” In Washington’s era it referred to the idea of political dependence, evoking the concept of satellite states. Satellite states are countries who are considered formally independent but in reality are under some type of political, economic, or military control from another country. Washington is saying that the United States must avoid becoming a satellite for another country or else they will be stuck in the shadow of that country as its follower. Furthermore, not only will allying with other countries result in being “embroiled in foreign conflicts,” but it will also prevent other nations from taking the United States seriously since they will be viewed as the underling of a more established nation.

In a lengthy diatribe, Washington warns against forming factions among the people. He writes that those without principles may take advantage of the nation—or the people—and take control of the government. This process, Washington warns, destroys the very “engines” that have brought these dishonest politicians to power. By likening the people to an engine, he not only suggests that the people are the powerful force propelling the nation forward but also that they require care and maintenance for success.

The compound “ill-concerted” combines two words. The former describes someone or something that is morally evil while the latter means coordinated or organized. The word “incongruous” describes something that is discordant. With the use of this vocabulary, Washington highlights the potential downfall of dividing the people according to party politics. Forming parties, he writes, is akin to forming factions. He advocates instead for an “organ of consistent and wholesome plans” established through a single organized and united government.

The “Public Weal” is another term for “commonwealth,” which is a form of government that gives power to the people. The phrase literally means “public wealth,” with the older definition of wealth being “well-being.” Washington establishes each branch of the government as a “guardian” of the well-being of the newly founded United States against the other branches, reinforcing the need for a separation of powers between the different government bodies.

The noun “despotism” refers to the exercise of absolute power by one person or entity, and is oftentimes associated with dictators and monarchs. Washington's use of this word to describe the potential outcome of the party system intentionally brings to mind the oppressive British rule that the United States had only just thrown off. He cautions against creating such stark divisions of power within the government as, in his mind, it will inevitably lead to someone’s taking advantage of those divisions in order to claim power for themself.

The noun “faction” refers to organized groups who hold dissenting opinions within a larger body. The main political factions in 1796 were the Federalists and the Democratic Republicans (known earlier as the Anti-Federalists). Federalists, led by Alexander Hamilton, supported a strong federal government and focused on promoting economic growth through tariffs and a national bank. Democratic Republicans, also known as Jeffersonian Republicans because of Thomas Jefferson’s influence over the party, wanted a weaker, decentralized government that focused on states’ rights. George Washington, though he identified as the only nonpartisan president in US history, was largely sympathetic to the Federalist cause.

According to Washington, following a constitution under a republican government poses one significant trade-off: Americans may make sense of the Constitution as they will, however they still need to obey the established laws. This paragraph demonstrates how Washington sees the Constitution as malleable, but only to a certain degree.

Another warning Washington issues is against misrepresentation. He alerts his readers to politicians who might fabricate lies about other people or districts to stir up mistrust among the people. Dishonest politicians might hope to garner support by dividing the people.

The Articles of Confederation (1781–1788) preceded the United States Constitution. Established during the Revolutionary War by the Second Continental Congress, the document established a weak federal government with no executive branch, no ability to tax, and no formal court systems. Washington was an early supporter of the idea of the Constitution, having experienced firsthand how ineffective the government under the Articles of Confederation was while serving as the head of the army.

One of the major takeaways from the address, in addition to Washington’s warning about sectionalism and factionalism, is to remain wary of those who try to undermine the unity of the nation.

Despite serving as the commander-in-chief of the Continental Army during the US Revolution, Washington believed that the military should not become “overgrown.” He preferred deterrence over belligerence and believed that the national defense ought to be well-prepared for war at all times. His isolationist stance extended into his views of the military and thought it was unwise to turn to other nations for military aid.

The noun “mass” describes an aggregate of different parts that makes up a single entity. He sees the United States as a “united mass”—despite the differences among its four quadrants, each part works hand-in-hand to create a stronger, more secure nation and to ward off dangerous foreign entanglements.

The etymology of the word “intercourse” stems as far back as the 16th century, when it was first used to describe communication and trade between countries or localities. More recently, it has taken on other meanings including social communication or discourse. Here, Washington uses the term to describe how different regions of the United States—the North, South, East, and West—work together economically and geographically. For example, the South profits from the manufacturing capabilities of the North and the West profits from supplies provided by the East.

Jay’s Treaty, negotiated by Chief Justice of the Supreme Court John Jay between the United States and Britain, went into effect in early 1796. Jay’s Treaty helped the US avoid being drawn into the hostilities between France and Britain at the time. It also normalized trade between the two countries. However, Jay’s treaty was also heavily divisive and was one of the foundational conflicts between the pro-treaty Federalists and the pro-French, anti-treaty Democratic Republicans. One of the most divisive elements was Jay’s failure to negotiate an end to the impressment, or forced conscription, of Americans into the British Navy. Many Americans, especially Jeffersonian Republicans, wanted to declare war over the practice. The treaty became a major campaign element for both the Federalists and Democratic Republicans in the 1796 election.

Here, Washington speaks to the “shades”—slight or minute differences—among Americans, both physically and philosophically. However, he states in the next line that despite their differences, Americans are also united by their religion and politics—exemplified by their “joint efforts” during the American Revolution.

Pinckney’s Treaty, also known as the Treaty of San Lorenzo or the Treaty of Madrid, was formally ratified and proclaimed on August 3rd, 1796. It established a firm border between the US and a territory controlled by Spain called “Spanish Florida.” It also negotiated navigation rights for US traders on the Mississippi river, which was a major concern amongst the people. It was named after Thomas Pinckney, a Federalist from South Carolina who was selected as the vice presidential candidate for John Adams’ presidential campaign in the 1796 election. However, despite Adams claiming the presidency, Jefferson became Vice President instead because he had earned the second highest number of votes.

The word “palladium” describes something that provides security. The term originates from Greek and Roman mythology, in which the statue of “Pallas,” the goddess of wisdom often known as Athena or Minerva, was believed to be a safeguard for the cities of Troy and Rome. Here, Washington refers to a prosperous and safe nation as a Palladium—a safeguard for its inhabitants.

In this metaphor, Washington conjures an image of the government as an impenetrable keep or castle. He likens the unity of government to a political fortress, which when well-guarded, can stand against both internal and external enemies.

The noun “appellation” refers to a name or title like “American.” Washington cautions readers to never take more pride in their state or local identities than they do in the idea of being Americans. He is using pathos to appeal to the commonalities between all citizens in an effort to encourage them to see one another as all being a part of the same country, rather than a loosely connected bunch of states and towns. This appeal to national identity serves to foster patriotism and unity.

Washington employs asyndeton, a literary device originating from Greek and Latin literature. Meaning “unconnected” in Greek, asyndeton is a tool whereby a writer or speaker eliminates conjunctions between clauses and phrases in order to form concise sentences. Here, Washington holds that unity of government works to support “tranquility,” “peace,” “safety,” and “prosperity.” Without conjunctions, Washington lists these values one after the other without pause, indicating that each is equally integral to the nation’s well-being.

Washington describes the audience’s independence in metaphorical terms: as an edifice, or building, held together by the “unity of Government.” Without this edifice, the image suggests, an individual’s independence might come crashing down. It would upset every aspect of someone’s life, from their “safety” to their “Liberty.”

With this metaphor, Washington suggests that the love of liberty is “interwoven” with the “ligaments,” or the connective tissue that connects joints and cartilage. He likens liberty to the fibres that run through the American people’s hearts and which tie the nation together.

Washington draws on the language of the Declaration of Independence, which establishes the right of every citizen to “life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.” He encourages readers to associate their personal happiness as well as the happiness of the nation at large with the strength and unity of the federal government. This establishes the idea that patriotism is necessary for the individual since the prosperity of the country is directly linked with the happiness of the people within in. It also deputizes the people to scrutinize the practices of the government and hold their leaders accountable for their actions since, according to washington, each and every citizen has a stake in the prosperity of the union.

The word “liberty” is defined as freedom from bondage, imprisonment, or autocratic, often foreign, rule. Multiple times throughout the speech, Washington enforces liberty as one of the main tenets of the United States. He often personifies liberty by describing it is a spirit that oversees the wellbeing of the nation.

The word “liberty” is defined as freedom from bondage, imprisonment, or autocratic, often foreign, rule. Multiple times throughout the speech, Washington enforces liberty as one of the main tenets of the United States. He often personifies liberty by describing it is a spirit that oversees the wellbeing of the nation.

By combing the word “auspices,” which means guidance or patronage, with the word “liberty,” Washington envisions liberty as a guiding, protective force over the American people.

Here, Washington employs anaphora, a literary device whereby he repeats the first word or clause to add emphasis. Following each semicolon, Washington uses the word “that” to list his hopes for the nation.

The word “annals” describes a year-by-year narrative of events. Here, Washington applauds the support of the American people over the years. He believes that this “constancy” is what has supported the young nation through difficult times and what will continue to sustain them in the future.

The verb “admonish” means to warn someone. In his continuing appeal to ethos, Washington asserts his humility by claiming that his many years of service have warned him “more and more” that his retirement is impending. He believes now is the right time for him to return to his hometown.

Here, Washington refers to his 1783 letter of farewell to the army in which he also offered advice with regard to the success of the nation. After the end of the Revolutionary War in 1783, Washington was preparing to return to retirement. In his letter of farewell to the army, he presented himself in a similar fashion as he does in his Farewell Address to the nation: as a humble citizen whom readers are “indulging.” In his 1783 letter, Washington established four things that were “essential” to the success of the fledgling country: a centralized and indissoluble government with one federal head, a regard for public justice, the maintenance of the militia, and communal unity.

Despite serving as commander-in-chief of the Continental Army and President of the United States for two terms, Washington maintains that he may be underqualified for the task of offering advice to fellow Americans. This supposed meekness or shyness serves as a rhetorical strategy because it appeals to ethos, establishing the credibility of his character. By stating that “the inferiority of [his] qualifications” has caused him self-doubt or “diffidence,” Washington conveys that, like his audience, he is only a modest American. He understands that this appeal to ethos will cause his audience to more readily accept his advice.

Washington encourages future politicians to be careful and wise with their policies and handling of the country, suggesting that the United States must prosper and thrive in order to set an example for the rest of the world. Such success will demonstrate democracy as a viable form of government. This call to action allows Washington to draw on the patriotic spirit of the nation in order to give them a purpose and something to prove to the rest of the world.

In this aside, Washington alludes to the conflicts the nation was facing externally and internally. Internally, Washington refers to the disagreements over treaty negotiations with the Creek Nation in the Southeastern territories. Externally, Washington alludes to the war France has waged against Great Britain, which he formally denounces through his neutrality policies. He mentions these crises in a pithy aside since his audience was aware of the political climate.

Washington writes to his audience with a mix of excitement and hesitancy. On one hand, he rejoices, or feels joyful, that his services are no longer needed; on the other hand, he explains that there are still myriad issues facing the United States, which he goes on to detail throughout the address. Nevertheless, he retains a sense of hope that his departure from office will not hinder the nation’s growth.

The adjective “inviolable” means “never to be broken, infringed, or dishonored.” Washington describes his attachment to the United States as inviolable, establishing his credibility as a patriot who has a vested interest in the future of the nation and its values. His attachment to the fledgling country is unbreakable, so despite his retirement, he indicates that he is offering this advice because he wishes to see it prosper long after he has left office.

The “persons” Washington refers to here are Secretary of State Edmund Randolph (1753–1813) and Secretary of the Treasury Alexander Hamilton (1755–1804). These men recognized the increasing political turmoil both at home and abroad. Washington recognized these diplomatic challenges and the need for strong leadership. He reluctantly stayed on for a second term, for which he was unanimously elected. In 1796, Washington asked Hamilton to revise Madison’s first draft and amend the section on foreign affairs and neutrality.

Here, Washington refers to 1792, when he wished to retire following his first term. He turned to James Madison (1751–1836), then a Representative from Virginia, to draft a message for the American people. However, this first address was never published because Washington remained in office for a second term at the urging of several politicians.

By employing the word “deference”—meaning respect for a superior’s wishes—Washington casts himself as inferior to the American people. He says that he is at the will of the nation’s “desire.” Despite his persistent yearnings to retire to his hometown of Mount Vernon, Virginia, he recognizes and voices the need for a strong leader during this time of factionalism and sectionalism, which was tearing at the seams of the nation.

The noun “zeal” describes an eager desire to achieve something. In this paragraph, Washington assures his audience that his decision to retire is not the result of reduced zeal on his part regarding the course of the county. Although he is stepping down from office, he pledges to care for the nation’s future and remain grateful to the American people.

Washington metaphorically describes nominating a new president as covering the candidate in cloth. This image suggests that the presidency is chosen or ordained by a larger entity, such as the people. This newly elected president will be covered “with that important trust,” a bind between the office and the people he represents.

The now-antiquated term “apprize,” or “apprise,” comes from the French apprendre, which means “to teach.” In this context, Washington apprizes, or imparts, the lessons he has learned while holding office and justifies his decision to retire.

The year 1796 marked the third quadrennial presidential election and the first contested election in U.S. History. In both 1788 and 1792, George Washington was elected unanimously. However, with Washington officially resigning, 1796 presented the first opportunity for the two leading political parties to gain control of the government. John Adams, a Federalist, won the electoral vote by a narrow margin and Thomas Jefferson, a Democratic-Republican, received the second highest number of votes and became Vice President. The 1796 election is to this day the only election in which the President and Vice President were from opposing parties. That situation, alongside the deadlock between Aaron Burr and Jefferson in 1800, influenced the creation of 12th amendment to the constitution in 1804, which reformed how Vice Presidents were elected. Since then, candidates for Vice President have run alongside presidential candidates.

The Claypoole’s American Daily Advertiser in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, was the first newspaper to publish George Washington’s “Farewell Address” on September 19, 1796. Originally named the Pennsylvania Packet or the General Advertiser, the newspaper ran between 1771 and 1839, under various names and owners until it was bought out by the North American. By publishing his “Farewell Address” in letter format, Washington was able to reach the entire nation and speak to all Americans.

By 1796, George Washington (1732–1799) had served two terms as President of the United States. He decided against running for a third term because, at the age of 64, he feared that he might die in office, setting the precedent that the presidency was a lifetime appointment. His decision would lay the groundwork for the 22nd Amendment to the Constitution, which would establish the two-term standard when it was ratified in 1951.

Washington takes a strongly isolationist stance in this address, going so far as to say that the influence of other nations is “one of the most baneful foes of Republican Government.” The word “baneful,” meaning “murderous,” suggests that the fate of the United States is at stake during negotiations about foreign policy. By using such life-and-death language, Washington appeals to his audience’s emotions in an effort to change their opinions toward policy.

To “gild” something is to cover it with a thin layer of gold in order to give it the appearance of greater value and beauty. Washington accuses those “deluded citizens” who, serving the benefit of an allied nation, cover their “ambition, corruption, or infatuation” with “the appearances of a virtuous sense of obligation.” This is the rhetorical gilding that Washington speaks of.

In this case, the noun “odium” refers to the condition of being hated. Washington uses it in contrast to its antonym—popularity—in order to illustrate the actions of citizens who act in the best interest of an allied nation rather than their home country.

Washington takes a stance of skepticism towards the agendas of other nations, even those that would approach the United States with overtures of friendship and “common interest.” In Washington’s view, there is only “imaginary common interest” between any two nations. The benefits are spoiled by the risk that the problems of one nation will spill into the other with no guards in place. Furthermore, foreign alliances give rise to individuals with mixed motives who, feigning a virtuous attitude of international magnanimity, seek personal gain. The arguments Washington sets forth in this paragraph appeal to reason, attempting to sway the audience through logic.

In this case, the noun “umbrage” refers to doubt and suspicion. Washington warns Americans against falling into bitter relationships with other nations wherein both sides “lay hold of slight causes of umbrage,” moving readily into a stance of suspicion toward the other. The word derives from the Latin “umbra,” meaning shadow, and in fact shadow is the most basic definition of “umbrage.”

The adjective “inveterate” means old or long-standing and derives from the same Latin root as “veteran.” Washington encourages Americans to set aside “inveterate antipathies”—that is, long-standing disputes—with other nations.

The noun “exigencies” refers to necessities and requirements. Thus, “public exigencies” refers to those public services, programs, and projects to which tax revenues are funneled.

In this passage about taxes, Washington calls on the American people to summon up a “spirit of acquiescence” with regards to the dreaded practice. The noun “acquiescence” refers to the contented acceptance of something undesirable. By admitting that taxes are “more or less inconvenient and unpleasant,” Washington comes across as an honest, relatable, and credible figure whose ideas are realistic.

In this sentence, Washington discusses the mechanics of democratic power, much of which lies balanced between the population itself and the politicians who represent them. Washington accurately points out that while the representatives are ultimately those who make the decisions, their choices are swayed by the citizens they represent. Therefore, the president is appealing to his audience’s emotions by underscoring the power they possess and and then offering them counsel as if he were playing court advisor to their king.

In this passage Washington champions the importance of an educated population of voters, a value shared by many of the founders of the United States. They recognized that because democracy distributes power among the public, it is the responsibility of all citizens to become “enlightened” so as to properly carry their share of the burden of decision-making. An educated public is also essential to preserving democracy from the threat of tyranny. As Thomas Jefferson wrote to a friend in 1797, “Ignorance and despotism seem made for each other.”

In this paragraph about checks and balances in the federal government, Washington coins the colorful phrase “spirit of encroachment,” the latter noun referring to the act of wrongfully intruding on the territory, property, or rights of another. The president claims that this spirit tends toward despotism, motivating the various departments, politicians, and parties to seek to increasingly consolidate power. The solution to the entropic forces of encroachment is a proper system of federal checks and balances.

In this paragraph, Washington weighs the counterargument to his critique of two-party politics. According to this opposing opinion, the presence of multiple parties provides checks and balances to the reigning administration. Washington concedes that such a party system is vital when placing checks on a monarch but states that this is not the case in democratic nations such as the United States. Washington’s tactic of considering and judging the counter claim is an example of an appeal to ethos, winning the audience’s favor by displaying his open-mindedness and breadth of knowledge.

Washington states that the goal of his prescriptions is the ongoing “felicity,” or happiness, of the American people. Such a statement makes the audience more receptive to his ideas, since happiness is a nearly universally desired emotion. Moreover, Washington’s appeal to his audience’s felicity evokes the principles of the Declaration of Independence, which similarly ensures “Life, Liberty, and the pursuit of Happiness.”

Washington prefaces his ideas by describing the care and attention he put into them. They supposedly arose “of much reflection, of no inconsiderable observation.” This is a clear appeal to ethos, for Washington seeks to make his ideas appear more legitimate by emphasizing their rigor.

Washington begins the main body of the address with a distinct rhetorical move. He remarks that “Here, perhaps I ought to stop” before embarking on a series of prescriptions for the country, which he shares out of concern “for your welfare.” By framing his thoughts as motivated entirely by his sense of duty and his care for the audience, he gives his ideas more credibility.

Here Washington foregrounds the virtues of the American people, citing the central role their support played in the successes he oversaw. This is an example of an appeal to pathos, for Washington is playing to the emotions of the audience with his insistent praise.

Washington strives to make his exit from public office as dignified as possible. He offers numerous reasons for his decision to leave, remarking that “choice and prudence” invite him to do so. Perhaps most importantly of all, patriotism—his love for the United States—“does not forbid it.” By figuring patriotism as an external agent, Washington makes his position more credible. It is important to Washington that he maintain his reputation as a dedicated patriot, even after retirement.