Allusion in The Waste Land

The line is an allusion to a character in Thomas Kyd’s The Spanish Tragedy. In the play, Hieronymo is driven mad by the murder of his son. “Ile fit you,” which in context means “I’ll oblige you,” appears in act 4, scene 2 as Hieronymo engages with the murderers in plotting to avenge his son’s death. How this allusion relates to the text of “The Waste Land” is a matter of conjecture among Eliot’s literary critics.

From “El Desdichado [The Unhappy One],” a sonnet by Gérard de Nerval, the line translates as “The Prince of Aquitaine whose palace spire lies low in the dust.” Bringing the poem full circle, Eliot returns to the dust motif introduced in "The Burial of the Dead": “I will show you fear in a handful of dust.” Through the quotation from “El Desdichado,” he seems to be issuing a final warning about succumbing to spiritual defeat.

From “Pervigilium Veneris,” a poem generally attributed to Tiberianus, a Roman poet, the quotation translates as “When will I be as the swallow?” In the poem’s final allusion to the story of Philomela, whose suffering ends when she is turned into a bird, the question seems to be a plea for deliverance from the wasteland of modern life as Eliot has described it. The repetition of “O swallow swallow” suggests desperation in the plea.

From Purgatorio, the second part of Dante’s Divine Comedy, the line translates as “Then he hid himself in the refining fire.” Suggesting the need for cleansing of the spirit, the quotation supports major themes in “The Waste Land” concerning the degradation of the spirit in modern life. For someone to seek refuge in “the refining fire” perhaps suggests that spiritual rebirth is still possible in modern times.

The passage alludes once again to the character of the Fisher King in legends of the Holy Grail. Like the wounded king, the speaker longs to see his own land flourish once again with life and growth. In the context of “The Waste Land,” life and growth would include a spiritual rebirth.

The phrase is an allusion to the tragic hero of Shakespeare’s play Coriolanus. A once-respected Roman warrior who is exiled from Rome, Coriolanus returns to Rome with an army to destroy the city; betrayed by an ally, he is murdered.

This alludes to a story in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, an ancient text of Hindu and Buddhist philosophy. When humans, demons, and gods ask the Creator how to live in ways that will bring internal peace, he answers “DA,” which is the sound of thunder.

“Ganga” refers to the Ganges River in India; “Himavant” refers to the peak of the Himalayas, the highest mountain peak in the world. Himavant is also a personified god of the Himalayas, and his daughter Ganga the goddess of the river. Describing these sites in South Asia serves to introduce the allusion to Hindu and Buddhist philosophies that follows.

The passage alludes to Chapel Perilous in Sir Thomas Malory’s Le Morte d’Arthur. Lancelot is tempted in the chapel but must remain pure in his quest for the Holy Grail. Through the allusion, Eliot returns to the Grail motif established earlier in the poem.

The line is a biblical allusion to the Gospel of Luke 24:13–35 that recounts the story of two of Jesus Christ’s disciples traveling to Emmaus; they meet a stranger on the road, the resurrected Christ, but fail to recognize him. The allusion seems to underscore Eliot’s theme of disconnection from religious faith in the modern world.

In the context of the previous lines, “He who was living is now dead” alludes to Jesus Christ before his resurrection after dying on the cross. The repetition in the two lines and their juxtaposition suggest a similarity between his physical death and the ongoing spiritual death in modern society brought about by the abandonment of religious faith and the corruption of traditional moral values.

“Phlebas the Phoenician” is an allusion to the drowned Phoenician Sailor in Madame Sosostris’s pack of tarot cards described in “The Burial of the Dead,” the first section of “The Waste Land.” The allusion unites “Death by Water” and “The Burial of the Dead” in developing themes relating to death, decay, the transitory nature of life, and the superficial values embraced by the living.

Carthage is an ancient city in North Africa. This line alludes to St. Augustine’s Confessions and his description of what he encountered in the city: “a cauldron of unholy loves sang all about mine ears.” The allusion, suggestive of passion and worldly desires, anticipates the conclusion of section III in the lines that follow.

These lines allude to the Rhinemaidens’ song in Wagner’s opera Ring Cycle; they are repeated as a refrain following the next section of text and appear in a most abbreviated form near the end of section III. The allusion is ironic in the context of Eliot’s descriptions of the modern, so-called maidens in "The Fire Sermon."

“Magnus Martyr” is an allusion to the St. Magnus the Martyr church, located in Lower Thames Street near the original site of London Bridge. “Splendor” means a magnificent, glorious appearance, and “Ionian” refers to columns designed in the style of classical Greek architecture. Rebuilt following the Great Fire of London in 1666, the church is considered architect Sir Christopher Wren’s most beautiful work. The imagery of the church, its beauty held within its walls, suggests a solemn silence, in contrast to the mandolin music and the “clatter” and “chatter” within the bar nearby. Through the allusion, Eliot again negatively contrasts the values of modern life with those of times long gone.

This line alludes to a song, a “melancholy air,” sung by Olivia Primrose in Oliver Goldsmith’s novel, The Vicar of Wakefield. Seduced and then betrayed, Olivia sings that to conceal “her guilt” and “hide her shame,” a woman’s only recourse in these circumstances “is to die.” In context, the allusion ironically underscores Eliot’s themes in this section regarding sex in the modern world: that it has become casual and meaningless. The allusion also underscores the idea that modern society has become unmoored from a sense of moral decency.

In Greek mythology, Tiresias is a prophet of the god Apollo; despite his blindness, Tiresias can see the future. In one of the Greek myths, Tiresias offends Hera, the wife of Zeus; she turns him into a woman who serves as her priestess for seven years before being turned back into a man. In his capacity as a seer, Tiresias narrates the remainder of section III.

Cannon Street, which runs approximately parallel with the Thames, is the historic center of London and the city’s financial district. Numerous hotels are located on Cannon Street. The Metropole is a London hotel noted for its many amenities. The invitation suggests that Mr. Eugenides seeks a casual sexual encounter with the speaker, supporting the theme of licentious behavior developed in this section.

This passage is a repetition of the allusion to the story of Philomela that appears in section II "A Game of Chess." It supports the major theme in this section, the spiritual debasement in modern life, driven by lust and selfish desires.

This line is taken from the end of Paul Verlaine’s poem “Parsifal” and translates as “And O those children’s voices, singing in the cupola!” The allusion once more references the legend of the Fisher King; in Verlaine’s poem, Percival, a knight who has remained physically and spiritually pure in order to drink from the Holy Grail, heals the wounded Fisher King. The allusion’s ironic juxtaposition with the preceding lines emphasizes the loss of innocence and nobility of character in modern times. Also, Percival’s turning away from lust and physical passions is consistent with the message of Buddha’s Fire Sermon, referenced in the title of this section.

The passage alludes to Ferdinand’s speech prior to Ariel’s song in act 1, scene 2 in The Tempest and to the Fisher King. In legends of the Holy Grail, the Fisher King is the last in a long line of characters charged with keeping and protecting the Holy Grail; he is always depicted as being wounded. Characters in “The Waste Land” often merge one into another, as with Ferdinand and the Fisher King merging in this passage.

“Leman” is the French name for Lake Geneva in Switzerland. Eliot wrote much of “The Waste Land” while convalescing in Lausanne by the lake. The line is also an allusion to Psalm 137, which describes the Israelites being exiled to Babylon: “By the rivers of Babylon, there we sat down, yea, we wept, when we remembered Zion.” The allusion support the poem’s themes of loss and despair following World War I.

In classical mythology, nymphs are minor spirits represented as beautiful maidens who live in nature. “The nymphs are departed,” a repetition of line 3 above, is another allusion to “Prothalamion.” In Spenser’s poem, nymphs gather flowers to adorn the brides-to-be. In the context of this passage, “nymphs” likely refers to prostitutes who had sexual encounters during the summer with the idle sons of prominent men in London. The allusion reflects the condemnation of lust suggested by the title of section III. It also contrasts the beauty of the Thames as described in Spenser’s poem (1592) with the ugliness and degradation of the river’s present condition. The contrast supports Eliot’s theme of spiritual emptiness in modern society.

The river mentioned previously is now identified as the Thames, which runs through London and southern England. The line is a refrain in Edmund Spenser’s poem “Prothalamion”; Spenser’s subject is a lovely double wedding on a summer day by the Thames, and the poem is filled with images of happiness and natural beauty. The allusion is ironic, considering Eliot’s previous description of the Thames and the silent “brown land” nearby, and it anticipates other ironic contrasts that are developed throughout section III.

The title of section III alludes to a sermon by the Buddha in which he urges his listeners to turn away from physical passion (lust) and the love of worldly pleasures. Through the allusion, Eliot indicates the content of this section of the poem.

The closing line is a repetition of Ophelia’s words in act 4, scene 5 of Hamlet as she leaves Gertrude and Claudius; in a disturbed mental state, Ophelia drowns shortly thereafter. The allusion underscores the “death by water” motif in “The Waste Land.” It also exemplifies Eliot’s inclusion of allusions to and excerpts from classical works of literature, placing “The Waste Land,” a modernist poem, in the wider context of Western literature.

Eliot employs repetition in the passage, repeating two allusions that appear in the first section of the poem, “The Burial of the Dead,” lines 37–41 and lines 46–48. Repeating the allusions during the conversation between the woman and her lover emphasizes the implied meanings of the allusions and suggests that they relate to society at large.

The lines possibly allude to trench warfare during World War I. Long, deep trenches were dug by both the Allied forces and the Germans to provide shelter as combat raged on the Western Front. The allusion suggests that the woman’s lover is a soldier returned from the war and anticipates the introduction of Lil and her husband, Albert, in the second half of section II.

The passage alludes to the story of Philomela in book 6 of Ovid’s Metamorphoses. Kidnapped and raped by her sister’s husband, King Tereus, Philomela is imprisoned and her tongue is cut out to prevent her from telling anyone what the king has done. The gods take pity on Philomela and make her a nightingale, the “change of Philomel” referenced in the passage. Besides contributing to the darkening mood and atmosphere in this section of the text, the allusion underscores the notion of sexual violence, which is introduced through implication in the title of the section, “A Game of Chess.”

Translated from French, “Cupidon” means Cupid, the god of desire and erotic love in classical mythology. The description of the woman’s ornate dressing table, adorned with golden figures of Cupid suggests wealth, beauty, and sensuality.

The section begins with an allusion to a passage in Shakespeare’s Antony and Cleopatra. In act 2, scene 2, Enobarbus, Antony’s loyal supporter, describes Cleopatra’s barge as it bears her toward meeting Antony. The passage is rich in imagery that emphasizes the wealth, beauty, and sensuality of the Egyptian queen. Through the allusion, the woman about to be described is associated with these qualities.

According to Eliot’s notes, the title of the poem’s second section alludes to the game of chess played in act 2, scene 2 of Women Beware Women, a play by Thomas Middleton (circa 1621). Middleton employs the game of chess device again in A Game at Chess (1624). In both works, playing chess is associated with the deception, betrayal, rape, and sexual seduction of women. The allusion indicates that this section of the poem will address these themes in some way.

The final line in “The Burial of the Dead” alludes to the final line in Charles Baudelaire's poem, "To the Reader." Translated from the French, it means “Hypocrite reader,—my fellow,—my brother!” Baudelaire’s poem develops themes that relate to those in “The Waste Land,” primarily the idea that withdrawing from life through inaction, boredom, fear, pessimism, or acceptance of defeat is worse than death itself.

The passage is an allusion to John Webster's poem "Funeral Dirge for Marcello," from his play The White Devil (1612), which describes the “friendless bodies of unburied men” being interred in “shady groves” as they are “covered with leaves and flowers.” In Webster’s poem, a wolf “that’s foe to men” must be kept away from the graves. In Eliot’s amended version, a dog “that’s friend to men” is equally destructive, perhaps implying that neither friends nor foes respect the dead, a claim illustrated by humankind’s history of relentless warfare.

Mylae, an ancient Mediterranean port in northeast Sicily, was the site of a fierce naval battle in 260 BCE between Carthage, a city state, and the Roman Republic; the Roman forces won, conquering Carthage. Since the speaker and Stetson, his unidentified acquaintance, obviously didn’t fight in the ancient battle, the statement serves no literal purpose; instead, it perhaps suggests the idea that wars are as old as humankind and are a repeating cycle throughout history. In that regard, World War I—“the war to end all wars”—will have accomplished nothing except to precede the wars to come.

The auditory imagery in these lines comes directly from Eliot’s experience; in his notes, he observes that that the sound is “a phenomenon which I have often noticed.” The church bell’s “final stroke of nine” can also be interpreted as a biblical allusion to the time of Jesus Christ’s death on the cross, recounted in the Gospel of Mark 15:33. The allusion and the connotations of “dead” in describing the sound of the bell contribute to the sense of hopelessness and resignation in this section of the poem, as foreshadowed by its title.

Beginning with Marie’s memories of Munich before World War I, the poem’s setting shifts to London after the war, evidenced by the following allusions to London Bridge, King William Street, and Saint Mary Woolnoth, a centuries-old Anglican church located on the corner of Lombard Street and King William Street in the City of London. The change in setting emphasizes that the disastrous effects of the war are not confined to the European continent.

This line is taken from a song sung by Ariel, a spirit, in act 1, scene 2 of Shakespeare’s The Tempest; through the song, she lies to Ferdinand, telling him that his father died in the shipwreck that Ferdinand survived. The inclusion of the line with its subtle allusion to Ariel’s lie implies once again that Madame Sosostris is a deceitful fraud.

The passage introduces the speaker in this section of the poem, Madame Sosostris, a clairvoyant(e) or psychic who supposedly can see the future. Madame Sosostris’s name is an allusion to a character in Aldous Huxley's novel Crome Yellow, in which a man disguises himself as an old woman and pretends to be a fortune teller. The fortunes he tells are dark and disturbing, and some of them are similar in theme to themes in “The Waste Land.” Associating Madame Sosostris with the charlatan in Huxley’s novel implies that she, too, is a fraud.

Translated as “empty and desolate is the sea,” the passage is an allusion to the scene in Tristan und Isolde when a dying Tristan waits for Isolde to return to him. Pairing the classic love story of Tristan and Isolde with a modern story of the “hyacinth girl,” whose lover is now incapable of feeling anything at all, supports the poem’s theme of spiritual death—the idea that even love cannot survive in the emotional sterility of modern post-war society.

These German lines may be translated as follows: “Fresh blows the Wind / towards home / My Irish Child / where are you now?” Eliot’s notes identify the passage as lines 5–8 of act 1 of Richard Wagner’s opera Tristan und Isolde. Tristan and Isolde’s enduring love for each other contrasts with the end of the relationship between the “hyacinth girl” and her lover described in the following section of the poem.

“Son of man” is a biblical allusion to Jesus Christ, who often referred to himself in the New Testament as the Son of Man, thus clarifying that he was human as well as divine. In context, “Son of man” can be interpreted as a new unidentified speaker’s alluding to human beings in general.

The allusion to the arch-duke likely refers to Austria’s Crown Prince Rudolph, who was also an archduke and a first cousin to Marie, Countess Larisch, who appears to be identified here as the speaker. Eliot met Countess Larisch in Munich either in the summer of 1911 or possibly in 1914 before World War I began. This passage, as well as others in the text, seem to reflect conversations Eliot had had with various people in his life.

This is a direct quotation from Canto III of The Inferno by Dante Alighieri (1265-1321). In The Inferno, Dante remarks "I had not thought death had undone so many" after entering the gates of Dis, the subterranean city of the dead. Thus, Eliot's allusion equates London to hell and the throngs of Londoners to the countless dead. The comparison is metaphorical, for the Londoners are not literally dead, but perhaps spiritually so.

This is an allusion to Charles Baudelaire's 1857 poem "Au Lecteur." Eliot repurposes Baudelaire's shocking address to his "Hypocrite reader." Baudelaire's poem ends with the following stanza:

C'est l'Ennui! L'oeil chargé d'un pleur involontaire,
II rêve d'échafauds en fumant son houka.
Tu le connais, lecteur, ce monstre délicat,
— Hypocrite lecteur, — mon semblable, — mon frère!

One of many English translations of these lines is:

He is Ennui! — His eye watery as though with tears, 
He dreams of scaffolds as he smokes his hookah pipe.
You know him reader, that refined monster,
— Hypocritish reader, — my fellow, — my brother!

Translation: William Aggeler, The Flowers of Evil (Fresno, CA: Academy Library Guild, 1954).

This is an allusion to John Webster's poem "Funeral Dirge for Marcello." With its darkly comic meditation on death, Webster's poem matches the gloomy mood of Eliot's. The poem is as follows:

Call for the robin-redbreast and the wren,
Since o'er shady groves they hover,
And with leaves and flowers do cover
The friendless bodies of unburied men.
Call unto his funeral dole
The ant, the field-mouse, and the mole,
To rear him hillocks that shall keep him warm,
And (when gay tombs are robbed) sustain no harm;
But keep the wolf far thence, that's foe to men,
For with his nails he'll dig them up again.