"Jordan’s going to play in the tournament tomorrow..."See in text(Chapter I)
Jordan Baker is a professional golfer—she refused a drink earlier in the evening because she is “in training” for her sport. Though golf began as a male-dominated sport, it became more acceptable for women to participate—although not without facing discrimination—in the United States after the turn of the 20th century. The Women’s Tournament Committee of the United States Golf Association was established in 1917, making professional careers in the sport even more accessible for women like Jordan Baker.
"This idea is that we’re Nordics...."See in text(Chapter I)
Though the term “Nordic” usually describes someone who is descended from one of the Nordic countries (Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Finland, Iceland, and the Faroe Islands), Tom is referring to the specific racist ideology of Madison Grant, in which “Nordics” are credited with all major cultural developments throughout history. Tom’s anxiety about the rising power of people of color reflects his fear that his position of power and security is tenuous.
"The Rise of the Coloured Empires..."See in text(Chapter I)
This is likely an allusion to The Rising Tide of Color: The Threat Against White World-Supremacy, a 1920 book by American white supremacist Lothrop Stoddard. The work argues that the growing world population of people of color threatens “Western civilization” and white supremacy. This concern about losing the societal power conferred by whiteness would not necessarily have been unusual for someone of Tom’s social class; indeed, President Warren G. Harding referred to The Rising Tide in a 1921 speech as an influence on his pro-segregation views.
"a cheerful red-and-white Georgian Colonial mansion, overlooking the bay...."See in text(Chapter I)
In contrast to Gatsby’s European-style mansion, the design of the Buchanans’ home reflects some of the earliest architecture of the American colonies. It is notable that the real house most commonly cited as Fitzgerald’s inspiration for the Buchanan’s home was, despite its appearance, built in 1902—like the Carraways, any pretensions to legacy were just that.
"the shining secrets that only Midas and Morgan and Mæcenas knew...."See in text(Chapter I)
Nick refers to King Midas, J. P. Morgan, and Gaius Maecenas, three men who are associated with the accumulation of great wealth. In Greek mythology, Midas is a king of Phrygia gifted—or cursed—with a “golden touch,” or the “Midas touch,” meaning anything he touched transformed into gold. J. P. Morgan (1837–1913) was a successful American financier and the head of the banking firm that would become JPMorgan Chase, still a major bank today. Gaius Maecenas, born circa 70 BCE, was a friend and political advisor to the first Roman emperor, Caesar Augustus (63–14 BCE), and famous for his wealth and influence.
The “bond business” refers to buying and trading bonds, which are fixed units of corporate debt that accrue interest over time. The US enjoyed sustained economic prosperity after the conclusion of World War I in 1918 which continued through the 1920s. The booming stock market, which was concentrated in the New York Stock Exchange on Wall Street, offered promising opportunities to make one’s fortune by trading stocks and bonds, and so Nick abandoned the Midwest for New York City.
“The Great War” was the contemporary name for World War I, a global war that lasted from July 1914 to November 1918. Though the war began with a conflict between Serbia and Austria-Hungary, due to the two nations’ alliances with various other European nations, much of Europe was quickly involved. The global conflict became one of the deadliest in history, costing more than 20 million lives.
The Teutons were an ancient proto-Germanic tribe living in approximately the 1st and 2nd centuries BCE, whose deeds were recorded by Roman writers including Pytheas and Strabo. The Teutons migrated into the Roman Empire from southern Scandinavia in the late 2nd century BCE. In the company of the ancient Cimbri and Ambrones tribes, they successfully overcame Roman forces in Italy, Noreia, and Arausio. The war, which is known as the Cimbrian War, ended when the tribes split their forces and fell to the Roman general Gaius Marius. Nick uses the term “Teutonic” to mean “Germanic,” given Austria-Hungary’s role in starting World War I.
Nick is referring to the American Civil War (1861–1865), a bloody conflict between the northern states (the Union) and the southern states (the Confederate States of America). The Confederacy seceded from the United States after abolitionist Abraham Lincoln won the presidency over concerns that his government would restrict states’ rights to enslave Black people. The American Civil War is the bloodiest war on US soil thus far, killing at least 600,000 people. Despite the wartime drafts enacted by both the Union and the Confederacy, the founder of the Carraway clan avoided battle by sending someone else in his place. Like Nick is about to, this Carraway experienced events from the sidelines.
The title of Duke of Buccleuch is part of the Peerage of Scotland, a subsection of the Peerage of the British Isles before England and Scotland were united into the state of Great Britain in 1707. As a social class, a peerage is composed of individuals who have either inherited or been honored with a noble title, such as “lord,” “lady,” “duke,” and “duchess.” The Carraways, who have only been in the United States since 1851, lie about being descended from the Dukes of Buccleuch to make their family seem more distinguished. Their lie suggests that the idea of American “old money” families is illegitimate, given that the country is so young compared to England. This points to the arbitrariness of the division between “old” and “new” money, which fuels much of the characters’ interpersonal conflict in the novel.
Fitzgerald refers to Central Park, which is the fifth largest park in New York City. Located between the Upper West and Upper East Side neighborhoods of Manhattan, the park spans 843 acres and was first open to the public in 1858. Unfortunately, Central Park began to fall into a decline in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, partly because so many people were visiting for relaxation and leisure. Further, New York taxpayers objected to paying for maintenance costs, which made it difficult to care for the park amid such high visitor counts—especially among the middle and working classes, which were prohibited from gathering in large groups in the late 19th century.
The “wave,” or “finger wave,” was a popular hairstyle for women during the 1920s, 1930s,and later in the 1990s. The style was worn by celebrities, including Anita Page and Bette Davis, and later by Madonna and Missy Elliott. It involves setting hair into waves, usually by pinching it between one’s fingers and combing it into a waving “s” shape. In the 1920s and 1930s, a styling lotion was used to fix the style in place; hairsprays and gels can be used today. Myrtle’s choice of hairstyle seems consistent with a desire to emulate wealthy women, given that the wave was often worn by celebrities and socialites at the time.
Kaiser Wilhelm II was the German emperor (Kaiser) and king of Prussia from 1888 to 1918. He was a well-known figure during World War I, primarily because of his outspoken views on militarism and controversial newspaper interviews. Kaiser Wilhelm’s role in Germany’s involvement in the War is contested among historians; his tendency to speak openly about his views have led some to believe that he wielded significant political power, while others argue that he was merely under the control of his generals.
The novel Simon Called Peter was written in 1921 by British novelist Robert Keable. It was an instant bestseller, making Keable a celebrity and selling around 600,000 copies by the end of the 1920s. The story is about a man whose experiences as a chaplain in France lead him to a sexual and religious awakening. Fitzgerald thought the novel immoral, and its presence here can be read as a criticism of Tom and Myrtle’s spiritually vacant affair.
"I have been drunk just twice in my life..."See in text(Chapter II)
Drunkenness is an important motif, or repeating element with symbolic significance in a text, in The Great Gatsby. In the 19th century, a sect of Protestants began arguing for the outlawing of alcohol because of its ill effects on society. As a result, from 1920 to 1933, the United States government imposed a constitutional ban on the production, distribution, and consumption of alcoholic beverages, commonly referred to as “Prohibition.” Despite Prohibition, many continued to drink copiously. In Gatsby, alcohol consumption is often accompanied by foolish or even violent behavior. Intoxication seems to symbolize not only moral decline in the Roaring Twenties but also a pervading sense of shallow disconnect.
John D. Rockefeller (1839–1937) was a renowned American businessman who is considered to be the richest American of all time. Much of his wealth came from success in the oil industry after he founded the Standard Oil Company in 1870. He was its largest shareholder, even after he stopped running the company in 1897. Nick’s mention of Rockefeller is consistent with his references to immensely wealthy men like J. P. Morgan who inspired the widespread pursuit of wealth throughout the 1920s.
"At the newsstand she bought a copy of Town Tattle and a moving-picture magazine, ..."See in text(Chapter II)
“Town Tattle” is based on a New York gossip magazine called Town Topics. It was established in 1879 by Colonel William D’Alton Mann, a Civil War veteran, entrepreneur, and notorious blackmailer. He was known for borrowing—and often never reimbursing—large sums of money from notable people who did not want their secrets disclosed in the magazine. The “Town Tattle” would likely have been instantly recognizable to contemporary New York readers as a criticism not only of Myrtle’s character, but also a symbol of the rise of gossip and celebrity culture. The “moving-picture magazine” is probably the Motion Picture Story Magazine (1911–1977), a monthly periodical that is widely regarded to have been the first fan magazine for everyday filmgoers.
France was one of the first nations drawn into World War I (1914–1918) when it declared war on Austria-Hungary on August 1, 1914. It joined Russia and Britain to form the Triple Entente, which later expanded to become the Allied Powers with Japan and Italy, along with associated allies that included the United States and Portugal.
"a high Gothic library..."See in text(Chapter III)
European Gothic architecture was popular in the High and Late Middle Ages (approximately 1100–1500 CE) and is chiefly characterized by its use of pointed, or ogival, arches. Gatsby’s library taking inspiration from such an old European style could be seen as an attempt on his part to associate himself with “old money” and older traditions, despite his West Egg residence.
"it’s more that he was a German spy during the war...."See in text(Chapter III)
Lucille means that she believes—or at least has heard—that Gatsby spied on behalf of Germany in World War I. During the war, Germany led the Central Powers of Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire, and Bulgaria, and their enemies were the Allied Powers that included France, Italy, Russia, Japan, and the United States. Therefore, the rumor that Gatsby was a German spy suggests that he could have committed treason. The women’s spreading of baseless but salacious gossip seems to be a nod to the country’s growing love not only of gossip, but also of constructing fictional personas around the celebrities it worships.
Though many Americans lived in poverty during the 1920s, the healthy post–World War I economy gave the perception that money and success were easily obtained; one must only work hard, or perhaps get lucky in the stock market, to make a fortune. The Great Gatsby makes clear distinctions, however, between allegedly dubious sources of this “new money” and the seemingly respectable “old money” passed down through powerful families.
"and there is a burst of chatter as the erroneous news goes around that she is Gilda Gray’s understudy from the Follies...."See in text(Chapter III)
The dancer and actress Gilda Gray was famous during the 1920s, notably for her popularization of a dance called the “shimmy,” which became her trademark. The “Follies” refers to the Ziegfeld Follies, a theatrical revue that ran on Broadway in the early 20th century. The style of a “Follies” performance was a blend between what one might see in a Broadway play, a vaudeville show, and a variety show. The “erroneous news” that the dancer is Gilda Gray’s understudy both situates the events of the novel in time—Gray appeared in the 1922 Follies—and reminds readers of the novel’s fixation on celebrity culture and gossip, which was becoming increasingly influential in the United States.
"I’m the Sheik of Araby...."See in text(Chapter IV)
“The Sheik of Araby” is a 1921 song written by Harry B. Smith, Francis Wheeler, and Ted Snyder. It was written in part after the massive success of the feature film The Sheik (1921), starring actor Rudolph Valentino, and quickly became a jazz standard. The chorus that the girls are singing as Nick and Jordan drive through Central Park mirrors Gatsby’s intention to win back Daisy’s love. However, the possessive, potentially violent implications of the song—which ends with the line, “soon he will conquer love by fear”—indicate that Gatsby’s actions pose a threat to Daisy.
"He’s the man who fixed the World’s Series back in 1919...."See in text(Chapter IV)
Gatsby refers to the Black Sox Scandal, in which eight players for the Chicago White Sox were accused of throwing—purposefully losing—the 1919 World Series against the Cincinnati Reds. They were allegedly paid by a gambling syndicate led by Arnold Rothstein, a Jewish gambler and crime boss in New York City. The players were acquitted in 1921, but were nevertheless banned from Major League Baseball, as well as from consideration for inclusion into the Baseball Hall of Fame. The allusion—and Fitzgerald’s own comments—suggests that Wolfshiem’s character is based on Rothstein. Gatsby’s honesty about Wolfshiem’s legacy is perhaps surprising, given that he has already shown himself to be in business with Wolfshiem.
"I can’t forget so long as I live the night they shot Rosy Rosenthal there...."See in text(Chapter IV)
Wolfshiem is referring to the 1912 murder of Herman Rosenthal, a bookmaker and the owner of multiple illegal casinos in the city. Corrupt New York police lieutenant Charles Becker and four accomplices were convicted and sentenced to death, with Becker’s 1915 execution making him the first and only police officer to be executed for murder in the United States. Wolfshiem’s friendship with Rosenthal implies that he has—or at least has had—connections with organized crime.
The Metropole—now called the Casablanca Hotel—was a hotel near Times Square in New York City. As well as being the first hotel in New York City with running water in every room, it housed a casino and was a notorious hub of gang activity. The Metropole closed on November 1, 1912, as a result of the bad press engendered by the July murder of Herman Rosenthal outside its front door.
A highball is a simple alcoholic mixed drink created in the mid-19th century which became very popular in the 1920s. Initially it consisted of scotch and soda water served over ice in a tall glass, but over time the name came to refer to any combination of a base liquor with a carbonated mixer. Because the waiter offers cocktails to the luncheon party without prompting and the restaurant is located in a cellar it can be surmised that Nick and Gatsby are dining in an illegal establishment.
"Montenegro, Nicolas Rex...."See in text(Chapter IV)
“Nicolas Rex” is Nikola I, the ruler of Montenegro between 1860 and 1918, first as a prince (1860–1910) and then as a king (1910–1918). He was the nephew of Prince Danilo I, who ruled Montenegro from 1850 until his assassination in 1860.
The “Orderi di Danilo”—Order of Prince Danilo I—is an order of the Principality of Montenegro, which would later become the Kingdom of Montenegro. An order is a public honor bestowed by a monarchy or governing body upon a person of merit, often accompanied by a badge, sash, or other distinguishing mark. The Orderi di Danilo is awarded to individuals who help uphold Montenegrin independence, as well as for accomplishments in the arts and sciences.
"Montenegro’s troubled history..."See in text(Chapter IV)
This is likely an allusion to the Montenegrin campaign of World War I, which took place in 1916 when Austria-Hungary occupied the Kingdom of Montenegro, a now-former monarchy in southeastern Europe on the Balkan peninsula. Montenegro was an ally of Serbia, and thus invited Austria-Hungary’s attention during its Serbian campaign—a series of attempts to punish Serbia. However, the Kingdom of Montenegro was also a site of unrest leading up to the War: It was involved in both the First and the Second Balkan Wars (1912–1913 and 1913, respectively), when its king hoped to claim some of the Ottoman Empire’s territory in Rumelia.
The University of Oxford is located in Oxfordshire, England. It is one of the oldest universities in Europe, with evidence of classes being taught there as early as 1096 C.E. It remains one of the most prestigious universities in the world, and having gone there lends even more legitimacy to Gatsby’s persona as an upper-class, connected, and well-bred individual.
"he was nephew to Von Hindenburg..."See in text(Chapter IV)
“Von Hindenberg” is Paul Ludwig Hans Anton von Beneckendorff und von Hindenburg, usually referred to as Paul von Hindenburg (1847–1934). Hindenburg was the general who commanded the Imperial German Army during much of World War I and went on to become President of Germany in 1925. Being von Hindenburg’s nephew should theoretically have made Gatsby a figure of great suspicion to patriotic Americans, and the carelessness with which these rumors of violence are spread shows the upper class’s feeling of invincibility as well as their detachment from reality. Wild speculations about Gatsby identity are an example of the frivolous gossip Nick is surrounded by throughout the novel.
A bootlegger is a person who illegally makes, sells, and distributes something, usually alcohol. That Gatsby is thought to be a bootlegger speaks to the immense money available through illegal trade in the 1920s. The Eighteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution, ratified in 1919, and the 1920 Volstead Act had made it illegal for anyone in the US to “manufacture, sell, barter, transport, import, export, deliver, furnish or possess any intoxicating liquor.”
"Americans, while occasionally willing to be serfs, have always been obstinate about being peasantry...."See in text(Chapter V)
Serfdom was a position of indentured servitude in feudal Europe. Peasants—members of the working class who paid rent or tax to a feudal lord—who could not pay debts or taxes or who otherwise desired the lord’s protection could become serfs. Generally speaking, serfs lived and worked on the land of the feudal lord as opposed to maintaining distinct property and in some cases could be sold with the land on which they worked. Nick does not mean that Americans are literally serfs; however, he suggests that under the American capitalist system, individual workers are content to be treated as indentured servants as long as they don’t appear to be members of the lower class.
"A brewer had built it early in the “period” craze, a decade before, and there was a story that he’d agreed to pay five years’ taxes on all the neighboring cottages if the owners would have their roofs thatched with straw...."See in text(Chapter V)
The “period” craze was a brief architectural trend in which houses were designed and built to resemble those that were popular during different historical periods. Gatsby’s house was constructed by a brewer who apparently wanted to recreate a feudal setting in which his house would be the castle overlooking a neighborhood of make-believe peasants living in thatch-roofed houses. Throughout The Great Gatsby, anecdotes like this both situate Nick in the culture of gossip he comes to resent and offer clues about how Fitzgerald wanted the narrative to be interpreted.
"a copy of Clay’s “Economics,”..."See in text(Chapter V)
Sir Henry Clay (1883–1954) was a British economist and Oxford alumnus who eventually served as the Warden of Nuffield College at Oxford University. Economics, an Introduction for the General Reader is an introductory economics book published in 1916. It was praised for its style and accessibility, and was popular in the United States as well as the United Kingdom.
"Let’s go to Coney Island..."See in text(Chapter V)
Coney Island is a neighborhood in the New York City borough of Brooklyn. It has been a place of entertainment since the mid-19th century, when it was made into a seaside resort, and by the 1920s it was the location of several amusement parks. Gatsby’s invitation forms a sharp contrast to Nick’s mention of the World’s Fair—while both the World’s Fair and Coney Island could be called amusement parks, the World’s Fair carries connotations of culture and education as well. Coney Island, on the other hand (and especially at two in the morning), connotes seediness and entertainment for entertainment’s sake.
"Your place looks like the World’s Fair..."See in text(Chapter V)
A world’s fair is an international exhibition of different countries’ great achievements in science, technology, and the arts. They have been held since the mid-19th century. Each fair is different and usually lasts for at least several months. Nick’s comparing Gatsby’s house to “the World’s Fair” elevates it to the level of a massive spectacle—one of the major attractions at the Pan-American Exposition of 1901 was its electric illumination. It indicates not only how bright the lights in Gatsby’s house are shining, but also that on some level Gatsby is showcasing himself and his possessions as a major city showcases its great accomplishments.
The name “Barbary Coast” was a European term for the islands of Algiers, Tripoli, and Tunis in Northern Africa from the 16th to the early 19th centuries. During this time, pirates from this region notoriously plundered European ships and enslaved their passengers, a practice known as the “Barbary Slave Trade.” San Francisco’s Barbary Coast was a district that sprang up during the California Gold Rush in 1849. By the 1860s it had been named for the notorious pirate haunt and was known for gambling, prostitution, and high levels of crime. That Gatz accompanies Cody to the Barbary Coast—whichever one is meant—implies that his exposure to corrupt business practices began early in his life as Jay Gatsby.
The West Indies is a group of islands in the Caribbean region. In 1917, the United States purchased Denmark’s sovereignty over the West Indies, which included Saint John, Saint Thomas, Saint Croix, and Water Island, and they are now an unincorporated territory of the US called the Virgin Islands. The Caribbean had become a popular offshore banking destination in the 1920s because US citizens could avoid paying federal taxes by doing so. Though Nick does not specify the reason for Cody’s trip to the West Indies, it is possible that he was conducting business with foreign banks. Proximity to such financial practices underscores that Cody continues to rely on exploitation, in this case through tax evasion and banking in a colonized region, to maintain his privileged lifestyle.
Nick means that Dan Cody made his fortune from various resource “rushes,” like the Gold Rush of California and silver mining in Nevada, in the mid- to late 1800s. The source of Cody’s wealth mirrors many of the fantasies that pervaded the 1920s: it reflects “easy money” that is made quickly, as well as the potential for improving one’s life through ambition and work ethic (though the work ethic involved in achieving the American dream is traditionally rooted more in enterprise). Importantly, the “easy” wealth of the resource rushes was often obtained through the displacement and massacre of Native Americans as well as the exploitation of natural resources, laborers, and a lack of legal codes. Being “a product” of these rushes implies that Cody had loose morals.
"underground pipe-line to Canada..."See in text(Chapter VI)
Nick here alludes to a rumor that, during Prohibition, illegal alcohol was transported from Canada into the United States through a pipeline. Given that Gatsby is rumored to be a bootlegger, it is perhaps unsurprising that other uncorroborated stories about illicit alcohol sales and distribution “attached themselves to him.”
"an ambitious young reporter..."See in text(Chapter VI)
The “ambitious young reporter” who seeks a story about Gatsby possibly works for a tabloid or some other gossip magazine—a relatively new genre of reporting which has already appeared in the form of Myrtle’s Town Tattle and Gatsby’s news clippings about Daisy. Fitzgerald’s inclusion of a reporter following gossip to find a story is possibly a criticism of American journalism’s pursuit of salacious details in order to sell more papers.
"He and this Wolfshiem bought up a lot of side-street drug-stores here and in Chicago and sold grain alcohol over the counter...."See in text(Chapter VII)
It seems that Gatsby and Wolfshiem illegally redistilled industrial grain alcohol, which was manufactured with toxic additives, and sold it in their drug stores. During Prohibition, consumption of illegally redistilled grain alcohol led to the poisoning deaths of tens of thousands of Americans. Gatsby’s criminality ensures that his wealth and claims to social status will be perceived as illegitimate by Daisy. However, his history suggests to readers that the American dream, with its specific emphasis on the idea of making one’s fortune, is impossible to achieve without corrupting oneself as Gatsby has.
"his career as Trimalchio was over..."See in text(Chapter VII)
Nick’s reference to the fictional character Trimalchio is an allusion to the play Satyricon, which was written by Roman courtier Petronius in the late 1st century CE. Trimalchio is a former slave who has since made himself rich and whose dinner party is a tasteless and vulgar display of extravagance. By the 1920s, the label “Trimalchio” would have been recognized as a derogatory way to refer to the excessive spending of the newly rich, like Gatsby. The allusion here also serves as ironic foreshadowing: obsessed with the idea of mortality, Trimalchio transforms his dinner party into a rehearsal for his own lavish funeral.
The Meuse–Argonne Offensive (September 26–November 11, 1918) was one of the final military operations of World War I. More than 1 million American soldiers fought and approximately 26,000 died, making it the second deadliest military operation in American history. After 47 days, the battles ended with the signing of the Armistice of 11 November 1918, which ended the war between the Allies and Germany. Gatsby described his experience at Argonne in chapter 4.
James Jerome Hill was a railroad executive in the late 1800s whose massive projects—especially the Great Northern Railway connecting St. Paul, MN with Seattle, WA—earned him the nickname “Empire Builder.” He was not born into a wealthy family, but owed his success to his impressive work ethic and leadership skills.
