Historical Context in Hamlet

In Greek mythology, Niobe was a Queen of Thebes. She is said to have boasted about having fourteen children to the goddess Leto, who had only two, the twins Apollo and Artemis. In response, Apollo and Artemis killed all of Niobe's children, later turning her to stone on Mount Sipylus, where she continued to weep even in her petrified state. Niobe became the prototype for all grieving mothers in Greek tragedies and is here likened to Gertrude to emphasize the other's apparent lack of grief.

In Catholic belief, suicide is a mortal sin, or something that is such an egregious wrong that it cannot be forgiven by God. To commit suicide condemns a person to Hell and reflects poorly on one's surviving loved ones. This exclamation marks Hamlet's first reference to suicide and the beginning of a downward emotional spiral that some scholars have linked to modern conceptions of depression. For Hamlet even to be considering suicide suggests that something is desperately wrong.

Martin Luther famously posted his "95 Theses" on the front door of All Saints' Church in Wittenberg on Oct. 31, 1517, an act that would lead to the Protestant Reformation. Although the time periods don't coincide (the play takes place in either the 14th or 15th Century), Hamlet will struggle with his traditional Catholic belief system throughout the play and wrestle with the new thinking that he's acquired at university.

In Hamlet's time, masculinity was a far narrower concept than it is today, and being "manly" primarily meant fighting, conquering, and remaining stoic in the face of grief or danger. Calling Hamlet's grief "unmanly" calls his masculinity into question and undermines his authority in this group of people. This is yet another tactic Claudius uses to sway Hamlet, though ultimately it does more harm than good.

Claudius states that his brother's death left Denmark disorganized and "out of frame." In medieval Europe, a power vacuum was particularly dangerous and made countries far more vulnerable to attack. Claudius knows that without leadership in place, other countries would view the Danes as weak. He plays on this fact in order to appeal to his audience's sense of self-preservation, a very persuasive tactic.

That the dead king comes back clothed in full armor bodes well for the future of his soul, because popular belief held that a ghost that appears fully clothed is imbued with some angelic virtue or power. Hamlet has no real reason to fear the Ghost, but needs to take precautions in case the Ghost turns out to be an enemy of the state in disguise.

The firing of the "great cannon" was a real event that often ocurred at the real-life Elisinore during the reign of King Erik. During banquets, whenever a glass was raised in a toast, trumpets would sound, while on the ramparts outside artillery men responded by firing cannons. It was a noisy and boisterous time, recreated by Shakespeare for Claudius's wedding fete.

In Hamlet's time, for his paternal uncle to wed his mother would've been considered incestuous, despite the lack of blood relation. This topic was hotly debated in England in the 16th Century as Anne Boleyn, wife of King Henry VIII, was framed for "incestuous" acts with her brother, acts which later led to her beheading. In Shakespeare's time, when England was predominantly a Catholic state, the Church would've frowned upon Gertrude and Claudius' marriage, but would've frowned even more on divorce.

A "springe" is a snare to catch small-game, such as the woodcock, a small wading bird. Polonius characterizes Hamlet as false and, through the use of the hunting metaphor, predatory. He compares Ophelia to a game-bird and suggests that Hamlet is attempting to lure her in with his vows and tenders, only to snare her. Both Laertes and Polonius characterize Ophelia as unsuspecting and passive, emphasizing the lack of agency, especially sexual agency, that women had.

In Shakespeare's time, "tenders" could refer to a type of coin that wasn't legal tender because it wasn't "sterling" or up to the quality of legal money. Polonius implies that Hamlet's gestures of affection are not "sterling," meaning that they are not indicative of true love. It is anachronistic for Shakespeare to speak of money as sterling here, because it is a particularly British term that wouldn't have been used in Denmark in Hamlet's time, as they used the Danish krone, or "crown."

An expression drawn from the phrase "by the Virgin Mary," a mild oath used in the Middle Ages. This exclamation indicates that Polonius knows about Hamlet and Ophelia's relationship and, much like Laertes, doesn't approve of it. The male members of a family were viewed as the guardians of the female members' chastity, so both Laertes and Polonius view Hamlet as a potential threat to Ophelia's future since her marriage prospects are dependent on the perception of her virtue.

"Husbandry" refers to the management of a household and its financial affairs, a source of great pride amongst men of a certain station. It was customary for a man of means to oversee his finances, and any loan or debt would've "dulled the edge" of this task, making it less of an achievement and more of a source of embarrassment. To be indebted in this way was a sign of irresponsibility and a cause for contempt.

One of the most famous lines in the play, this sentiment stems from Shakespeare's belief that usurers (people who lend money) are in some way morally bankrupt and that one should never become indebted to someone of poor moral character. There's also an element of anti-Semitism in this sentiment, since most money lenders were Jewish in Shakespeare's time. Notice that Polonius relies on these stock aphorisms rather than offering genuine advice.

Laertes is referring to Ophelia's virginity. In Hamlet's time, a woman's marriage prospects depended largely on her ability to maintain (or appear to maintain) her chastity. By extension, a man's honor was tied to the chastity of his wife and daughters, with his blood line and heirs only being assured if there could be no question of his wife's faithfulness. Any indiscretion or gossip would cause serious problems when it came time to inherit the estate.

Hamlet's interest in Ophelia is in conflict with Denmark's interests, so even if Hamlet really loves her, she has to take into account the fact that he is a future King. While Ophelia's family is important to the royal court, she is not a princess and has very little to offer Hamlet in terms of a political match.

Protocol dictated that royals would marry partners pre-selected for them according to their parents' needs and wishes. Many marriages were allegiances forged in order to consolidate property, assets, and political relations between friendly nations. These kinds of arrangements were common in Europe and led to many members of the aristocracy being related to each (as Queen Elizabeth II was cousin to Germany's Kaiser Wilhelm, a familial tie that nevertheless couldn't stop WWI). For Hamlet, marrying for love was not an option.

Teaching Tip: Sometimes students are afraid of Shakespeare due to his lofty reputation. Remind them that he is not meant to be worshiped, but enjoyed. Common people were his bread-and-butter; he could not have reached the heights of popularity that he achieved by appealing solely to the highest common denominator. As Richard Eyre, long-time director of the Royal National Theater and author of National Service: Diary of a Decade argues, "However great Shakespeare's genius is, it doesn't help to treat him as a sort of holy fool or Messianic seer. He was a playwright, and an actor, and a theatre manager. He was utterly pragmatic; his plays wouldn't and couldn't have worked if they had been shrouded in obscurity and abstract conceits."

A creature from ancient Greek mythology, the Nemean Lion was said to possess enormous strength, impenetrable fur, and claws that could slice through all armor. Hercules's First Labor was to slay the Nemean Lion, an event alluded to in Act I, Scene ii, when Hamlet draws a parallel between himself and Hercules. By subverting this metaphor and positioning himself as the Nemean Lion, he makes himself more like Hercules in terms of strength, suggesting that his father and his uncle are more alike than he thinks.

Shakespeare makes use of the obscure verb form of the word "beetle" to imply that the cliff overhangs the sea. He also draws on imagery from the Bible (the flood, the cliff) to recall Matthew 4:1-11, where the devil leads Jesus into the wilderness, tempts him to stray from God, then tells him to jump from the tallest point of a temple. In effect, Horatio equates the Ghost with the devil, suggesting that it doesn't have good intentions.

"Cerements" or grave-clothes were wrapped around the body when it was buried or interred. For a ghost to rise, it would need to break through its grave-clothes and leave its sepulchre or tomb to walk the earth. Since Hamlet's father appears on stage in his armor, there's a tension here between whether or not the Ghost appears in corporeal form, as a solid figure, or in translucent form, like ghosts in films. Different productions of the play have answered this question differently.

In Hamlet's time, if one's complexion was "o'vergrown," one of their four "humours" was out of alignment. The four "humours" were bodily fluids (blood, phlegm, black bile, and yellow bile) and were said to govern one's personality. Too much or too little of any one "humour" could result in one being sanguine, choleric, phlegmatic, or melancholic (generally undesirable characteristics that needed to be corrected). Hamlet himself appears to be melancholic, suggesting that he has too much black bile in his system.

In medieval Europe, swords, with their long blades and sturdy hilts, resembled and were associated with crosses. Thus, they were often sworn upon as if they were crosses, making this oath, in effect, the most binding one: an oath to God. It's no wonder that Marcellus and Horatio hesitate, because, while loyal to the prince, it's in their nature to gossip, and there's no better gossip than the appearance of a dead king.

St. Patrick, patron saint of Ireland, is said to have spent forty nights praying and fasting in a cave now known as "Saint Patrick's Purgatory." In Shakespeare's time, this legend was well-known, and is used here to tie into the theme of Purgatory connected with the Ghost and to once again equate Hamlet with a Christ-like figure (Christ himself having spent forty days and forty nights fasting, just like St. Patrick did).

In traditional Christian practice, the faithful are supposed to make a final confession before they die, absolving their souls of sin before they reach the "Promised Land." King Hamlet wasn't given the opportunity to confess, thus, he was sent to Purgatory, even though his sins, according to him, weren't very serious. Under normal circumstances, it is implied, he would've gone to Heaven.

Lazar, meaning a poor or diseased person, is derived from the name Lazarus, taken from the parable of Dives and Lazarus in Luke 16:19-31. Lazarus was a poor man, covered in sores, who begged outside of the home of a wealthy man. The wealthy man ignored Lazarus' suffering and, after he died, was sentenced to eternal torment for his greed, while Lazarus was sent to heaven. For King Hamlet to refer to himself as "lazar-like" is ironic, considering his wealth and the "fires" he indicates are waiting for him, and suggests, once again, that he may not have been the saintly figure Hamlet likes to portray him as.

An eruption of the skin, as in eczema or ringworm, resulting in dryness, flaking, itching, and pus. Again, Shakespeare's knowledge of botany and medicine are called into question, as there seems to be no known poison that would cause all of these symptoms. Skin lesions are a common symptom of chronic arsenic poisoning, but it appears that there was only one instance of poisoning, so that might not be the cause.

Here the serpent, who nows "wears [the] crown," is Claudius. However, the fact that he is called a "serpent" should also be taken as a symbol of evil and cunning. King Hamlet's orchard alludes to the Biblical Garden of Eden, where the devil in the form of a serpent tricked Eve into eating the fruit of the Tree of the Knowledge of Good and Evil (often depicted as an apple). Again, the analogy positions King Hamlet as a holy character (in this case Eve) and Claudius as the devil.

Lethe is the river of forgetfulness, one of five rivers in Hades, according to ancient Greek mythology. It's said that anyone who drank from Lethe's waters would have their memories erased. The Ghost personifies the fat weed on the wharf, which, as a plant, wouldn't have a mind or memories beyond its basic biological function, but would still be subject to the same forgetful properties of the river's water.

In Shakespeare's time, murder was both reviled (as a sin against humanity) and revered (as inspiration for some of the finest and most popular dramas). To suggest that the foulest murders are the best murders is, in some ways, to glorify the act of murder and everything it entails (a strange thing for the "saintly" King Hamlet to do, especially when he knows that these are the kinds of sins that sent him to Purgatory in the first place).

The verb "harrow" means to torment or to tear apart. Shakespeare may be alluding to the Harrowing of Hell, a scene depicted in Dante's Inferno (a major source of inspiration for Shakespeare), in which Jesus descended into Hell in the days between his Crucifixion and his Resurrection and brought salvation to the souls that had been suffering there. In that sense, this line means both to torment and to set free from torment.

In Christian theology, the soul went to one of three places: purgatory, where it awaited final resolution of its fate and finished any business it had on Earth; heaven, provided the individual earned it; or hell, where flames engulfed the souls of the dead for all eternity. Hamlet's father doesn't specify whether these "sulphurous and tormenting flames" are waiting for him in purgatory or hell, and this makes the audience question whether he's really as saintly as Hamlet made him out to be.

Pyrrhus, another name for Neoptolemus, Achilles' son. After Achilles was killed, Neoptolemus killed King Priam of Troy and then enslaved Andromache, Priam's daughter-in-law, the widow of Hector, a Trojan prince. Later, Neoptolemus became the king of Epirus, a region now known as the southeast part of Greece and Albania.

Hyrcania was a region roughly coinciding with parts of modern day Iran and Turkmenistan. The Greeks referred to the Caspian Sea as the Hyrcanian Sea, and the region was well-known for its ferocious tigers, here referred to as the Hyrcanian beast. Shakespeare uses the beast as a symbol of violence and cruelty.

Æneas and Dido are legendary figures described in Virgil's Æneid, an epic poem written by the Roman poet in the first century BCE. In the poem, Æneas is a hero whose descendants will destroy the city of Carthage, where Dido reigns as Queen. Æneas and Dido become lovers, but this doesn't save the city from destruction.

That is, no salty or salacious bits using vulgar or off-color language. In Hamlet's time, and particularly in Shakespeare's time, stage plays often needed to be vulgar to hold the attention of the very rowdy audiences they attracted. A modest play like the one Hamlet refers to wouldn't have done well in this environment.

In classical plays, writers often aspired to the Aristotelian unities, wherein all the action takes place in one place and time (typically a single day) and with minimal diversions into subplots. "Unlimited" poems (or plays written in verse) are then dramatic works that don't adhere to these unities.

Quintus Roscius, a famed Roman actor from the first century BCE. Born a slave just outside Rome, he became one of the most well-respected actors in the Roman Empire, excelling particularly in comedy and tragedy. We're not sure what Hamlet was trying to say about Roscius because Polonius cuts him off.

From the Latin ducatus, meaning the duke's coin, a ducat was a gold or silver coin used in Europe from the Middle Ages into the 20th Century. The ducat became the standard gold coin used in Europe after it was officially sanctioned in 1566 and remained so until it was de-sanctioned in 1857.

When Shakespeare wrote Hamlet, the practice of replacing accomplished adult actors with troupes of talented young boys had recently gained popularity. Thus, these characters are probably expressing the views of Shakespeare's own company.

In the Middle Ages and in Elizabethan England, when Shakespeare wrote Hamlet, the heavens were believed to form a vaulted ("o'erhanging") arch over the earth, which was often depicted with fire and celestial objects, with the assumption that the Earth was the center of the universe. That arch was known as the firmament and is now only referred to in the poetic sense.

In the Middle Ages, fruit was often served as dessert, no doubt due to its high sugar content. Polonius means that his news will come after what the ambassadors have to say, but also suggests that it will be "sweet," or that Claudius will enjoy hearing it. Given the context, this says as much about Polonius as it does about Claudius.

Polonius describes what was then thought to be a real ailment: "love-sickness." What we might now call depression, this state was thought to be a result of too much of one of the "four humors," namely, sanguinity, which supposedly carried in the blood one's passion and lust.

Hercules was an ancient greek hero tasked with Twelve (seemingly impossible) Labours. Rosencrantz alludes to this by way of saying that he never would've expected the boys to be victorious. What's more, there was a sign outside of the Globe Theatre, where Shakespeare's plays were produced, depicting Hercules holding up the world, further cementing the idea that Rosencrantz' opinions are actually Shakespeare's.

Here, Ophelia mourns not only the loss of her love but the loss of Hamlet's example for the rest of the men in Denmark. Courtiers and noblemen would model their behavior on that of the royal family. In going insane, Hamlet robs the courtier his eye, or perception, the scholar his tongue, or discourse, and the soldier his sword, or prowess. He is no longer the paragon, or glass of fashion, on which others can model their behavior, but a fallen man. Ophelia mourns both for herself and for all of Denmark.

A dowry was a gift of money, livestock, goods, etc. that a father put up for his daughter to take to her husband's house upon their wedding. Hamlet wouldn't have any reason or right to give Ophelia a dowry, but promises a terrible one in the form of an icy chastity that will ruin her marriage. This is especially cruel, and will effectively end their relationship.

Nero was a Roman Emperor well- known for both his corruption and debauchery. It's believed that Nero himself caused the Great Fire of Rome in order to clear land for his palace and that he poisoned his own stepbrother. Here, Hamlet compares himself to Nero because the emperor purportedly ordered the execution of his own mother (an act Hamlet wants to avoid, despite his mixed emotions towards his mother).

Jove, the Roman epithet for Zeus, the king of the gods, likened here to King Hamlet, who used to reign over this realm until a peacock (a "pajock") dismantled it. Claudius then becomes the peacock, a term that criticizes him for his ostentatious lifestyle and his fashion choices.

From an ancient Greek legend. After Pythias was arrested for plotting against his king, he was allowed to settle his affairs on the condition that he leave his best friend Damon behind as collateral, so that if he never returned, Damon would be executed. Pythias returned, and in honor of their friendship, both were set free. Hamlet likens Horatio to Damon because Hamlet has put his friend in danger, but doesn't intend for him to be hurt.

Hecate is the Greek goddess of magic, witchcraft, the moon, and certain poisonous plants, like the one that Lucianus (a character in the play within the play) has used to extract his poison. Hecate's "ban" in this context means a curse or spell that's given the poison its potency.

Hymen in this context refers to the ancient Greek god of marriages, who would've blessed their union and joined or united their hands at the ceremony (figuratively speaking). There's a subset of Greek poetry called hymenaios that's sung during the procession of the bride to the groom's house.

Neptune is the Roman god of the sea (the "salt wash," or ocean), and Tellus (or Terra) is the Roman god of the earth, where "orbed ground" refers to the shape of the planet. Phoebus' cart has gone around the entire globe, flying over all the seas, for thirty years (and presumably also for all eternity).

Phoebus was the Roman epithet for the Greek god Apollo, the god of the sun, music, truth, healing, and poetry, among other things. He's said to have driven a chariot ("cart") that pulled the sun behind him across the sky, creating the dawn and the sunset. If Phoebus' cart has gone around thirty times, thirty years have passed.

Termagant was a god that people in medieval Europe confused with Allah, the god in Islam. Similarly, Herod is a character from the Bible, a king in Judea who plotted to kill Jesus Christ when he was born, because Christ was supposed to become king of the Jews (and thus dethrone Herod). Both were violent rulers, and as characters on the stage would've been wildly overdone.

The "groundlings," or members of the pit, were a notoriously rowdy bunch, prone to violent and ridiculous outbursts ("dumb-shows") that were often crude and sexual in nature. Some even went so far as to jump up on the stage. To subdue them, Shakespeare had to keep the action tight, but that didn't keep him from poking fun at the pit a little.

In ancient Greek plays, a chorus was a group of characters who told the audience what was going to happen in the play. By likening him to a chorus, Ophelia isn't praising him so much as politely telling him that he's talking too much and spoiling the show.

A reference to Ezekial 16:49: "Pride, fulness of bread, and abundance of idleness." Hamlet thinks Claudius struck King Hamlet down out of pride and a kind of arrogance born out of privilege and well-being. Only someone in as secure a position as Claudius was would think of murdering his own brother and marrying his sister-in-law.

Claudius' speech mirrors that of Lady Macbeth in Act V, Scene I of Macbeth, in which she attempts to wash her hands clean of King Duncan's blood but feels she can't because she's guilty. Both lines speak to the extreme guilt caused by committing a murder (of a king in particular).

In Hamlet's time, kings were considered to have a divine right to rule and weren't subject to the laws of the land, instead drawing their authority directly from God. Thus, if Claudius wants to spy on Hamlet, there's nothing anyone can do to stop him, and Rosencrantz and Guildenstern are required to tell him that he's being a good king.

Claudius refers to the first biblical curse on Cain for the murder of his brother Abel, of whom Cain was jealous because God favored Abel's offerings better. For his crime, Cain was compelled to live the rest of his life as a "fugitive and a vagabond." Genesis 4:10-12

To "cozen" means to deceive or beguile, whereas "hoodman-blind" refers to the game of blind man's buff, wherein a blindfolded player tries to touch the other players. Hamlet sexualizes the game by implying that Gertrude has been tricked into touching (or having sex with) her brother-in-law. Unfortunately, Gertrude agreed to the game in the first place, which still makes her complicit.

Hyperion is a Titan from Greek mythology and was known as "the High One." He was said to have fathered the sun, Helios. Hyperion is here suggested to have been very beautiful and powerful, like Jove, king of the Roman pantheon; Mars, the Roman war god; and Mercury, the messenger of the gods. Comparing King Hamlet to all of these gods elevates him and suggests that he was a much better king than Claudius will ever be.

In Hamlet's time, women were considered to be more sexually active because of their excess of yellow bile, which made them "hot." As women aged, the humours allegedly "cooled," making women less promiscuous. This is all to say that Gertrude can't be biologically motivated to desire Claudius, because she's past her "heyday."

This is a phrase from a children's game similar to hide-and-seek. The "fox" hides and all other children chase after in pursuit. Hamlet uses this line to suggest that he didn't kill Polonius on purpose, but rather thought it was a game. Accordingly, within the game, Polonius isn't dead but rather just hiding. Hamlet knows perfectly well what he did and is just feigning madness so he isn't thrown in jail.

Recall that in act II, scene II, Hamlet asked what this "quintessence of dust" means to him. It's an allusion to the biblical book of Genesis 3:19: "For dust thou art, and unto dust though shall return." Shakespeare repurposes this line to suggest that Polonius was never anything more than dust, and now that he's dead he's where he always belonged.

A "cherub" is a divine being typically represented as a winged baby with a round, rosy-cheeked face. Hamlet likens Claudius to a cherub because he's always smiling (and likely because his face is red from drinking). He's subtly telling Claudius that he knows exactly what he's up to and is fairly amused by it.

Fortinbras asks leave of Claudius to march across his kingdom to Poland, where he wants to wage war. This kind of "conveyance" was common during warfare and would need to have been formally requested of the king and queen. Here, there might be some suspicion that Fortinbras still holds a grudge, so Fortinbras is careful to say that he's willing to talk with Claudius and put their problems to rest.

As a nobleman and a trusted confidante of the king, Polonius would've been entitled to a lavish funeral, not unlike King Hamlet's. That he was buried quietly underscores the fact that Claudius and Gertrude are trying to cover up Hamlet's culpability (though not, in Claudius' cause, absolving him of guilt).

An allusion to a folktale about a girl who was turned into an owl after she rebuked her father for baking a free loaf of bread for Christ, who had disguised himself as a beggar. Polonius would've told Ophelia this story to instill filial loyalty in her (which may itself have led to this breakdown).

This is an appropriate analogy, given that Denmark, like Holland, has lowlands (flats) which are subject to flooding by the ocean and have to be protected by dikes. To pray that the ocean doesn't overtake the king's territory is akin to wishing him good health and great fortune.

Recall that in Hamlet's time (and, indeed, in Shakespeare's) monarchs were said to have a divine right to rule. That is, they were anointed by God with the power to rule, thus making an overthrow like the one Laertes describes a very dangerous endeavor. This explains why Claudius feels so confident and why Hamlet has hedged so much on his decision to kill the king.

From the ancient superstition that the first girl a man sees on St. Valentine's Day is destined to be his true love. In this song, the man opens his bedroom door to let the girl in, and when she leaves she's no longer a virgin. That Ophelia sings this after talking about her father suggests that his advice not to talk to Hamlet came too late and that it ruined an otherwise beautiful relationship.

Here, "liberal" shepherds are men who are free in their speech, or foul-mouthed. They've given a grosser (and likely sexual) name to the "long purples" Ophelia collected, which are likely some form of orchid or lilac. This grosser name was likely well-known to Shakespeare's audience, but has become obscure now.

In fencing, swords are "tipped" or capped so they can't inflict any real damage. Thus, when someone makes contact in a sparring match, it's only by touching or tapping the sword against someone else. An "unbated" sword, however, would have no such cap, and Laertes would be able to kill Hamlet and pretend that he didn't know. (These kinds of accidents were fairly common.)

This is an allusion to Ptolemaic astronomy, which postulated that each planet (or "star") was carried around Earth in its fixed orbit in a crystalline sphere. Claudius uses this figurative language to imply that he could no more go against Gertrude's desire than a "star" could go out of its fixed, predetermined orbit.

Mount Ossa, another mountain in Greece. Hamlet picks up on Laertes' allusion to Pelion by referring to the myth in which the Aloadaes, twin sons of Poseidon, attempted to overthrow Mount Olympus by piling Mount Pelion on top of Mount Ossa. Hamlet calls for gravediggers to bury them both until they're even taller than these mountains.

"Splenitive" means spleenful or hot-tempered, the spleen being the source of the yellow bile that's said to make one choleric and easily angered in the theory of Humorism. Hamlet implies that, unlike both Laertes and Claudius, who have been described as choleric, he isn't a rash person. However, he should still be feared because his anger is much colder and more deliberate.

Pelion and Olympus are both mountains in Greece. In ancient Greek mythology, Pelion was the birthplace of Chiron, the wise centaur and tutor of heroes like Jason and Achilles, while Olympus was the home of the gods. Laertes wants Ophelia's grave to be an even greater mountain than these, if not in size than in its place in his heart.

Alexander the Great, a student of Aristotle and commander of a great empire stretching from the Ionian Sea all the way to the Himalayas. In his time, Alexander the Great was the most powerful man in the world and is still considered one of history's greatest commanders. So one can imagine Hamlet's dismay in thinking that Alexander the Great would end up being just another skull.

A "pocky" or pocked corpse was one afflicted with the pox, or, in this case, the Bubonic plague, which killed millions of people in Europe and decimated Denmark's population. This might explain Hamlet's line about the age being "picked," meaning that people had been picked off in droves by the plague.

"Loggets" was a game played in England where players threw pieces of wood at a stake driven into the ground. It's anachronistic of Hamlet to refer to this game, because he wasn't likely to have played it, but Shakespeare uses it to emphasize that the bones of nobility aren't treated any better than those with lesser breeding or social station. Hamlet's probably thinking of his own death and shuddering to think what will happen to his body when he dies.

In the Bible, Cain killed his brother Abel because he was jealous that God preferred Abel's offering over his. Cain thus became the first murderer, according to Christian mythology, and an often reviled figure. That the First Clown "jowls" or dashes the skull against the ground underscores both the carelessness with which he works and the gruesome nature of the job.

Adam from the Genesis story in the Bible. God appointed Adam the caretaker of the Garden of Eden, where he was to oversee the plants and animals, not unlike the gardeners and ditchers of which the First Clown speaks. The First Clown uses the word "gentleman" to mean a good or godly person, not a noble, as the Second Clown interprets it.

Shakespeare appears to have been the first person to use the word "crowner" to mean "coroner," or someone who examines bodies for the cause of death. This exchange is especially important, because it establishes that (for the purposes of the burial) the "crowner" and, by extension, the royal court, have deemed Ophelia's death an accident and not a suicide. Had it been suicide, a mortal sin, she wouldn't have been allowed a Christian burial.

Ophelia will lie in her last home at the sound of the church bell, which traditionally only rang for the godly people given a proper Christian burial. If they were able to say with certainty that Ophelia had killed herself, she wouldn't be allowed this privilege, but since they can't be sure, the bell will ring for her, anyway, and God will decide what to do with her soul.

In ancient Rome, a group of philosophers known as the Stoics believed that it was nobler to face death and commit suicide than to compromise oneself in the way Hamlet asks Horatio to. These Stoics accepted their lack of control over external circumstances and made up for it with a strong sense of morality and bravery. Horatio intends to commit suicide by drinking the poison so that he can preserve his honor as Hamlet's friend.

In Hamlet's time, hats were often worn indoors but were removed in the presence of the higher classes and royalty. Osric has therefore removed his hat and will continue to hold it even though Hamlet tells him to put it back on his head. Hamlet may be testing him and his manners, just as he tested Polonius in Act III, Scene II when asking him about the clouds.