Vocabulary in Beowulf

Swamps, marshes, and bogs are often depicted as the lairs or habitats of evil creatures in stories. Such landscapes are sparsely populated by humans and full of unseen dangers from animals, disease, and the terrain. The addition of the word “fastness”—meaning secure refuge—suggests that Grendel’s land is difficult to enter, and therefore perilous to would-be adventurers.

Derived from the Old English “wald,” the noun “wold” refers to forest or wooded upland. The “winsome wold” refers to all the land of the earth, “encircled” as it is by water. This duality between land and sea directly resembles the Christian creation story laid out in the opening passages of the biblical book of Genesis.

Heorot loosely translates to "Hall of the Hart." A hart is a male red deer, a much larger species of deer than seen in North America. To Scandinavian and Anglo-Saxon cultures, the hart symbolizes strength, bravery, and aggressiveness.

The meaning of the verb “save” here actually means “except.” So, Hrothgar willingly shares all the blessings he can with his people except for his life and property. Additionally, earlier in this line the text read "than men of the era / Ever had heard of." During the time this tale was told, and translated, it was common to use the word men to refer to all people. This has fallen out of favor in recent years, as more inclusive words are preferred.

The earlier section “List of Words and Phrases not in General Use” states that a “bairn” is a son or child. The Oxford English Dictionary clarifies this to state that a “bairn” simply refers to any offspring, a son or a daughter.

The term “Weird,” often written as “Wyrd,” expresses the Norse conception of personal destiny. Having declared his intentions, Beowulf concludes his speech by stating that whatever happens will proceed according to his predetermined destiny, reinforcing his stoic and brave image in the face of danger.

The noun “petition” refers to an entreaty or formal request. So, when Beowulf asks Hrothgar for a petition, he is asking for permission to kill Grendel himself, an act which will greatly benefit himself and Hrothgar, because Hrothgar's people will be saved and Beowulf's reputation as a fighter will be greatly enhanced.

Hrothgar suggests that a “stripling”—meaning youthful and, literally, slim—Beowulf visited his court. While possible that Ecgtheow brought a young Beowulf to visit, it is interesting to note that Beowulf himself never indicates that he has previously been to Hrothgar's hall. Nonetheless Hrothgar remembers the hero and thus more readily welcomes Beowulf and his fellow Geatmen.

While this word simply means a living being or creature (See the List of Words and Phrases not in General Use), very often it is associated with evil or malice in tales of fantasy and fiction. The fact that it is associated with Grendel adds to this connotation.

The nouns “might” and “main” here use a nuanced and older definition. The former refers to an ability or power to do something; the latter refers to the physical force or power itself. With this in mind, the poet means that the battle between Grendel and Beowulf is so fierce that the foundations of Hrothgar's Hall are shaken, something thought impossible by the Danes, who believed the hall to be able to withstand any assault except for fire.

Recall that the poet used a similar phrase at the beginning of the poem to refer to the great king Scyld Scefing (An excellent atheling!). While it's possible that this line might be slightly ironic considering Hrothgar's inability to protect his own territory, it's more likely that this is meant in earnest considering Beowulf's praise and loyalty to Hrothgar.

While we know that Grendel was evil and doomed to hell regardless, the poet uses the word heathen (which means having a faith that is considered primitive or pagan) here to illustrate the early Christian belief that anyone not baptized goes to hell, a subtle reminder to the audience that even pagans who led good lives had no chance of entering heaven.

This is the part of Beowulf's armor that protects his torso and heart. Originally made of layers of cloth and leather (cuir), by Beowulf's time, it would have been made of a thin layer of metal. As part of his equipment, it adds to Beowulf's fearlessness by offering protection of his vital organs.

The "Weders" is another name for the Geats, or the Geat-folk. While Beowulf is not the king of the Geats, the inclusion of the word "Lord" here indicates the status that he holds among those people.

As mentioned on the List of Words and Phrases not in General Use page, a “carle” is another word for a “man.” However, it also has more specific meaning, such as a countryman, or a man of the common people. The poet then uses this “clever carles” to refer to Hrothgar’s men who have been waiting for Beowulf to resurface.

As mentioned on the List of Words and Phrases not in General Use page, a “bill” is another word for a sword. In Old English poetry, the specific type of sword could vary between a long, straight broadsword and a shorter, slightly curved falchion. In this encounter, the bill is likely a massive broadsword, made by giants.

The noun “weening” is Germanic in origin and means the action of believing, thinking, or supposing. In this case, the poet is saying that the dragon believes in his barrow and that this belief will deceive the dragon. This serves as foreshadowing for the coming conflict between Beowulf and the dragon—the dragon's trust in the security of his home is not going to help against Beowulf.

In the Old English version, Beowulf's blow with the sword is described as ungleáw, which can translate to mean that Beowulf's strike was not skillful, or awkward." There is a possibility that Beowulf, because of his age, is not as powerful as he needs to be in order to defeat the dragon. The original Old English has been reproduced here:

Sweord ær gebräd
gôd gûð-cyning gomele lâfe,
ecgum ungleáw, æghwäðrum wäs
bealo-hycgendra brôga fram ôðrum.

In different versions of Beowulf, Naegling assumes different shapes. For example, in some prose versions, Naegling is described as a glaive (a spear with a knife or dagger-sized blade attached to its point). Naegling is more often described as Beowulf's sword—possibly the sword of Hrethel that Higelac gifted him—as it is here.

The poet uses “Scylfings” as a metonym for “Swedish” since the Scyldings were the ruling clan in Sweden at the time. The poet tells the audience how Wiglaf's father, Weohstan—a Swede of the Wægmunding clan—joined the Geats and swore loyalty to Beowulf.

The mention of this clan name is significant because it is the same Swedish clan that Beowulf's father, Ecgtheow, belonged to. This establishes Wiglaf as Beowulf's distant cousin and only living relative at the time of Beowulf's death. The use of “kin-love” at the end of the previous section also emphasizes this connection that Beowulf and Wiglaf share.